Strategic Management and Leadership of General Motors Case Study

Strategic Management and Leadership of General Motors - Case Study Example GM, along with strategic partners manufactures automobiles and trucks in thirty-four nations, and trade and service these vehicles through its numerous brands.   Its biggest national market in the United States. China, Brazil, the United Kingdom, Canada, Russia, and Germany are the other nations which follow America in this context.   GM’s OnStar ancillary is one of the leading industries in vehicle safety, security and information facilities. On 10th July 2009,  General Motors Company obtained functions from General Motors Corporation. The General Motor Corporation established its place in the automobile manufacturing industry with the manufacturing of luxurious cars, which are classy at the same time superior from the other rival manufacturers of automobiles. Due to their high brand name and reputation in the market, the cost prices of cars from General Motors are generally very high and sometimes unreachable for general customers. (Global Operations, n.d.; General Mot ors, n.d) The General Motors Corporation held the first place as an automobile manufacturing company with respect to its sales for around 77 years until; Toyota took its place in the year 2008. The downfall of the company from the number one position is due to its negligence in terms of designing new innovative cars. There was a lack of creative innovations in terms of designs as they only have done some slight or minor changes in the designs to satisfy the customers. Some are of the view that the downfall is due to the poor strategic management of the company. The company faced difficulties in coming up with the internal and external pressures, like the accessibility of loans for the customers, the pressure from the Government and Labor Unions, crisis of oil, other competitive technologies such as electric cars, etc. (Global Operations, n.d.; General Motors, n.d) These difficulties clearly suggested that the company needs to re-strategize its  operations.

Banana as a Natural Superdisintegrant

Banana as a Natural Superdisintegrant The objective of the study was to evaluate banana powder as a superdisintegrant for the formulation of oral disintegrating tablets and to compare the results with commonly used superdisintegrants like croscarmellose sodium, pre gelatinised starch and sodium starch glycolate. Oral disintegrating tablets containing Domperidone as the model drug were formulated using five different concentrations of each superdisintegrant (2%, 4%, 6%, 8% 10%) and compressed by direct compression. The formulations were subjected to various evaluation studies such as wetting time, water absorption ratio, disintegration time and in-vitro dissolution. The results showed that the disintegration time and drug release of the formulation containing banana powder (6%) was comparable to other super disintegrants. The IR spectrum analysis demonstrated that banana powder was compatible with the drug. These results suggest that banana powder can be used effectively as a superdisintegrant in orally disintegrating ta blet formulations. Banana, is a natural product which is available in plenty, economically affordable and has its own nutritional value. It can be used as a potential additive in the formulation of oro -dispersible tablets. Keyword: orodispersible tablets, superdisintegrants, disintegration time, natural excipients. INTRODUCTION The tablet is the widely used dosage form because of its convenience in terms of self-administration, compactness, and ease in manufacturing. For the past one decade, there has been a demand for more patient-friendly and compliant dosage forms. As a result, the development of new technologies has been increasing annually. Since the cost for development new drug molecule is very high, efforts are now being made by pharmaceutical companies to focus on the development of new drug dosage forms for existing drugs with more safety and efficacy together with reduced dosing frequency, and the production of more cost-effective dosage forms. However, geriatric and pediatric patients were having difficulty in swallowing conventional tablets, which leads to poor patient compliance. To overcome this problem, scientists have developed innovative drug delivery systems known as melt in mouth or mouth dissolve (MD) or sometimes dispersible tablets. These are novel types of tablets that disintegrate /disperse in saliva. Their characteristic advantages such as administration without water, lead to suitability for the geriatric and pediatric patients. They are also suitable for the bedridden patients, and patients who do not have easy access to water. The advantages, in terms of patient compliance, rapid onset of action, increased bioavailability (in some instances) and comparable stability to conventional tablets make these tablets popular as a dosage form of choice particularly in these populations. Domperidone maleate is a widely used anti-emetic drug, acting by inhibition of the dopaminergic receptor. Domperidone maleate does not cross the blood brain barrier. Domperidone maleate is also effective in gastro paresis, pediatrics gastro esophageal reflux (infant vomiting). Domperidone maleate after oral dosing undergoes extensive gastric and hepatic first pass metabolism resulting in low bioavailability (15%) which therefore, may not minimize the rate of vomiting. In context of the above principles, a strong need was recognized for the development of mouth dissolving tablets of Domperidone maleate to improve its bioavailability for relief on nausea and vomiting. In mouth dissolving tablets, disintegrants plays a major role. A  disintegrant  is a substance in a tablet formulation that enables the tablet to break up into smaller fragments upon contact with gastrointestinal fluids. Such a rapid rupture of the tablet matrix increases the surface area of the tablet particles, thereby increasing the rate of absorption of the active ingredient and decreasing the onset of time to therapeutic effect. A new disintegrant class has emerged during the recent past known as the Superdisintegrant. Superdisintegrants improve disintegrant efficiency resulting in decreased use levels, typically 1-10% by weight relative to total weight of tablet when compared to traditional disintegrants. The excipients added to the formulation should not only act as formulating agent it also act as good therapeutic agent and also free from toxicity. In the present research work an attempt was made to use banana powder as a superdisintegrant in the formulation of mouth dissolving tablets. Banana powder being a natural substance and rich in nutrition and availability can be an added advantage in using them as a pharmaceutical excipient. MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials Domperidone maleate was a gift from sterling lab (hosur,India) banana powder (self made) croscarmellose sodium (CCS) and sodium starch glycolate (SSG)as pharmaceutical grade was obtained from Loba chem ,mumbai, pre-gelatinised starch (PGS) as pharmaceutical grade was obtained from colorcon, Mumbai ,all other materials used were of suitable analytical grade. Preparation of banana powder: The unriped banana fruit was purchased from the local market. The fruit was cleaned and the peel was removed. Then the pulp was dried and powdered using mixer. The powdered substance was collected and stored in well closed container for further studies. Phase solubility studies: Phase solubility studies was done as per the method reported by (K.Venkates et.al,2009)2.Drug and superdisintegrant as per specified ratio (1:1,1:2,1:3,1:4,1:5) were weighed accurately and added to 25ml of water in screw capped bottles. All the bottles were shaken in Remi orbital incubator shaker at 370c with 100rpm for 24 hr. The container with drug and water was used as control. After 24 hr the solution was filtered using whatman filter paper (0.45 microns) .Then the filtrate was analyzed at wavelength of 284nm using Systronics TM double beam spectrophotometer. From the absorbance the solubility of drug was calculated. Compatibility studies: The compatibility study of drug with excipients was done using IR spectroscopy. The drug and the excipients were mixed in a ratio of 1:1 and stored in glass vials at 40 °C/75% RH for 30days. At the end of 30 days samples were withdrawn from each vial and the IR spectrum for those samples were taken. The samples were prepared by pressed pellet technique. The IR spectras was determined using JASCO FT/IR-4100 (3-4).16 scans were taken for each sample. The scanning range was between 4000-400 cm-1. The IR spectra of pure drug and pure excipients were compared to that of the mixture of drug and excipients and any interaction were analyzed. Microbial load for banana powder: Pour plate method was used to cultivate 1ml of banana powder solution with distilled water on muller Hilton agar medium for enumeration of bacteria and sarboured dextrose agar medium for fungi. The plate was incubated at 370c for 24 hours for bacteria while fungi plates were incubated at 270c for 72 hrs (3-6). At the end of the incubation period, the bacterial and fungal colonies formed were counted. Sterilized banana powder solution was taken as control. Swelling index: Swelling index was defined as the volume in milliliters occupied by 1 gram of superdisintegrant powder including any adhering mucilage, after it had swollen in water for 4 hour. The swelling index of the superdisintegrant was performed according to the (BP, 2007) method (7-9). In a 25ml ground- glass stoppered cyclinder graduated over a height of 125 ±5 mm in 0.5 ml divisions. About 25ml of water was added and shaken vigorously every 10 min for 1 hour and then allowed to stand for 3 hours. The volume occupied by the superdisintegrating agent including adhering mucilage was measured. The swelling index was calculated from the mean of three determinations. Pre-compression studies: All materials were mixed as per the composition shown in table1 and passed through 60 mesh sieve. The pre-compression studies (10-11) were done as follows. Bulk density: It is the ratio of total mass of powder to the bulk volume of powder. It was measured by Pouring the weight powder (passed through standard sieve # 60) into a measuring cylinder and initial weight was noted. The initial volume is called the bulk volume. From this the bulk density is calculated according to the formula. It is expressed in g/ml and the equation was given by Bulk density= mass/bulk volume (1) Tapped density: It is the ratio of total mass of the powder to the tapped volume of the powder. Volume was Measured by tapping the powder for 750 times and the tapped volume was noted if the difference between these two volumes is less than 2%. If it is more than 2%, tapping is continued for 1250 times and tapped volume was noted. Tapping was continued until the difference between successive volumes is less than 2 % (in a bulk density apparatus). It is expressed in g/ml and the equation was given by Tapped density= mass/ tapped volume. (2) Carrs index (or) % compressibility: It indicates powder flow properties. It is expressed in percentage and is given as Carrs index =Tapped density-Bulk density/Tapped density (3) Hausner ratio: Hausner ratio is an indirect index of ease of powder flow. It is calculated by the formula given below. Hausner ratio= Tapped density/bulk density (4) Lower hausner ratio (1.25). Preparation of tablet: All the materials were passed through 60 # screens prior to mixing. Domperidone maleate, Croscarmellose sodium (CCS), Sodium Starch Glycolate (SSG), Pre-gelatinised starch (PGS),Banana powder, Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC),Neotame (nutrasweet), Mannitol (DC) , Talc, Magnesium stereate and flavour ( pharmaceutical grade) were mixed using a glass mortar and pestle. The formulation without superdisintegrant was prepared and used as control. All the materials were directly compressed into tablets using concave face round tooling on a Rimek- rotary tablet machine at 12 rpm . The composition of the batches is shown in Table 1. INGREDIENTS Evaluation of tablet: Tablet hardness: The hardness of the tablet was determined by using Tab machine hardness tester. Weight variation: Twenty tablets were selected randomly from each formulation and weighed individually using a Shimadzu digital balance (BL-220H). The individual weight was compared with the average weight for the weight variation. Friability test: The friability of the tablets was measured in a Friability apparatus (Camp-bell Electronics, Mumbai). Tablets of a known weight (W0) or a sample of 20 tablets are dedusted in a drum for a fixed time (100 revolutions) and weighed (W) again. Percentage friability for each formulation was calculated from the loss in weight as given in equation below. Determination was made in triplicate. % Friability = W0â‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬â„¢WÃÆ'-100/ W0 (5) Wetting time: A piece of tissue paper folded twice was placed in a small petridish (internal diameter = 6.5 cm) containing 6 ml of simulated saliva pH (phosphate buffer pH 6.8). A tablet was placed on the paper, and the time required for complete wetting was measured visually. Six measurements were performed for each batch (Nitin Jonwal et al, 2010). Water absorption time: A piece of tissue paper folded twice was placed in a small petridish (Internal Diameter = 6.5 cm) which containing 6 ml of phosphate buffer (pH6.8). A tablet was placed on the paper and the time required for complete wetting was then measured (Nitin Jonwal et al, 2010). The water absorption ratio (R) for the each formulation was determined using the following Equation. Water absorption ratio (R) =Waâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Wb ÃÆ'-100 / wb (6) Where, Wb is the weight of the tablet before water absorption and Wa is the weight of the tablet after water absorption. Disintegration test: Disintegration test was done by using disintegration apparatus (camp-bell electronics, Mumbai)with distilled water as disintegration media at 370c and the time in second taken for complete disintegration of tablet with no palpable mass in the apparatus was noted visually (Nitin Jonwal et al,2010). In-vitro dissolution study: The release study was performed using (Tab machine) six stage dissolution rate apparatus (BP/IP/USP) paddle type with 900ml of 0.1N HCL (PH=1.2) as dissolution medium at 370c and 50rpm. The sample10ml was withdrawn with the time interval of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20,25and 30 min. The volume of withdrawn sample was replaced with 10ml 0.1N HCL. The sample was filtered. Absorbance of the sample was measured using PC Based double beam spectrophotometer. The cumulative release was measured using equation obtained from standard curve. The regression co efficient of the standard was R2= 0.9997. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: Phase solubility studies: The phase solubility studies was done as per the method reported by K .Venkates etal2.The solubility of drug was determined by increasing the concentration of superdisintegrant by specified ratio (1:1,1:2,1:3,1:4,1:5). The pure drug had a solubility of 0.2mg/ml whereas the solubility of the drug with added superdisintegrants showed a value of about 0.44 to 1.1mg/ml for CCS, 0.46 to 1.21mg/ml for SSG, 0.34 to 0.46mg/ml for PGS and 0.8 to 2.7mg/ml for banana powder. The above results suggested that on increasing concentration of the superdisintegrants the solubility of the pure drug tends to increase. Of the four superdistegrants used, banana powder showed the maximum increase in solubility of the drug. Compatibility studies: The drug excipient compatibility study was done by using JASCO FT/IR spectrometer. The IR spectra for pure drug, excipients and drug-excipient mixture were shown in Figure1. The pure drug showed characteristic absorption bands at 3127.97 (Aromatic CH stretching), 1487.81 (C=C ring stretching), 1147.44 (CH2 Alkane bending), 928.557 (RCH=CH2), 891,866,833 (Para substituted benzene) and the formulation shows characteristic absorption band at 3123.15 (Aromatic CH stretching), 1487.81 (C=C ring stretching), 1147.44 (CH2 Alkane bending), 928.557 (RCH=CH2), 891,865,833 (Para substituted benzene). The spectrum of the drug-excipient mixture was found to be a mere summation of the individual spectrum of the drug and excipients which suggest that there were no interaction between drug and excipients and were compatible with each other. Swelling index: The swelling indeces for the crosscarmellose sodium, sodium starch glycolate , pre-gelatinised starch, banana powder are presented in table3. The values obtained suggest that the swelling index banana powder is comparable to other superdisintegrant. Microbial load: The banana powder was a natural substance and so the microbial load test was done and the results shown that it contains microbial growth of about 253 cfu/gm and fungal growth of about 89 cfu/gm which was under the limit specified by (United state pharmacopoeia,2007) (5). Pre-compression studies: All the materials was mixed as per composition shown in table1.For each designed formulation blend of drug and excipients was prepared and evaluated for micromeritic properties and the obtained results were shown in Table3. The bulk density and tapped density for all formulation was presented in table 3. The hausners ratio and %compressibility index was found to be in the range of 1.14-1.28 and12-22% (Table 3). All formulation shows good blend property for direct compression and hence tablet was prepared by using direct compression technology. The results shows that formulation containing banana powder has better physical properties compare to other formulation (Table 3). Evaluation of tablets: The tablet was prepared by direct compression method as per Table1.The prepared tablets were evaluated for weight variation, hardness, friability, wetting time, water absorption ratio, as shown in Table4. The weight variation was found to be in the range of 248mg-253mg for all formulation .The hardness was found to be in the range of 2-3kg/cm in all formulation indicating good mechanical strength and it has ability to with stand physical and mechanical stress condition while handling. The friability for all formulation was less than 1% as per (British pharmacopoeia, 2007) . The wetting time is closely related to the inner structure of the tablet. This method mimics the action of saliva in contact with the tablet to illustrate the water uptake and subsequent wetting of tablet. This shows the wetting process was very rapid in almost all formulation. This may be due to the ability of swelling followed by breaking and also capacity of water absorption and swelling. The wetting time was found in the range of (Table4). Water absorption which is important criteria for understanding the capacity of disintegrants to swell in the presence of light amount of water was calculated. The tablets showed in the range of 12-100 sec (Table4). This shows all the formulation have good water absorption capacity. The most important parameter that needs to optimize in the development of mouth dissolving tablet is the disintegration time of tablet. In the present study all the formulations disintegrated within 1min. Table 5 give the disintegration time achieved by all the formulation. Four replicates were done. The disintegration time for tablet prepared with banana powder was much lower than the other synthetic superdisintegrants, indicating that banana powder has good disintegrant property (Table 5). Among the synthetic agents CCS was found to be having good disintegrating property than SSG and PGS. This rapid disintegration of banana powder and CCS was due to their rapid capillary activity and pronounced hydration with little tendency to gel formation . The results are in consistent with wetting and water absorption time. Dissolution studies: The drug release studies of the prepared formulations were done as per the method prescribed by British pharmacopoeia. The dissolution profiles of all the formulations were shown in Figure 2-6. It is clearly evident from the obtained data, that the tablet with banana powder as superdisintegrant showed excellent drug release as compared to other agents. It is clear that release of drug has improved considerably in formulation containing banana powder and CCS due to the rapid capillary activity and pronounced hydration with little tendency to gel formation. But the formulation containing SSG and PGS has less dissolution efficiency because it has more tendencies to form gel formation .The batch B3 containing banana powder (6%) and C3 containing CCS (6%) shows good dissolution efficiency and rapid dissolution compare to SSG and PGS. CONCLUSION The present study was aimed at evaluating the disintegrant property of banana powder in the formulation of mouth dissolving tablets. The obtained results clearly demonstrate the ability of banana powder as a superdisintegrant. The disintegration time obtained by tablets with banana powder wascomparable to that obtained with other commonly used disintegrants. Hence it can be used very effectively in the formulation of MDTs. Banana powder being a natural product with abundant availability can be used as a potential pharmaceutical excipient in various solid dosage forms especially in fast release products. The economical and nutritional value of banana powder will be an added advantage of using them in the pharmaceutical formulations.

Ideal Woman :: essays research papers fc

Does anybody know what the ideal woman is supposed to look like? Is this woman thin and tall or fat and short? Why are woman judged on how they look and how they dress, but males are not? Why are images of woman everywhere? Why do woman feel that they have to be gorgeous so society can love her? Believe it or not, society plays a big role in people lives. The biggest role it probably plays is how a female should look. For instance, if you look at the television, if you look at movies, and if you look in different magazines covers, most of the woman appears to look thin. Other woman sees this body image and they began to think they need to look like her. Most actresses today are becoming younger and thinner and some of them have an eating disorder in order to stay thin. Trying to keep the Barbie doll image is very dangerous to woman.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It is kind of hard to believe that some of our wants and needs are based on images, the Barbie doll look. According to Olds, 69% of woman said that magazine models influence their idea of the perfect body shape (Olds, 1999). The media send messages that if you are thin and beautiful then you will get whatever you want. According to a study by Health and Welfare Canada (1992), they documented that 37% of females age 11, 42% of females age 13, and 48% of female’s age 15 say they need to lose weight (National Eating Disorders Information Centre, 2000). Most women do not realize this but the media sends woman subliminal messages through television. The average woman sees about 400 to 600 advertisements per day (Dittrich), and by the time she is 17 years old, she has received over 250,000 commercial messages through the media (LaVoie). These messages from the media tells woman in order to be successful you must be attractive and thin, which is not really true. T oday beautiful young and thin woman sees everything. They sell products from alcohol to shoes, you see them everywhere. These messages tell woman that appearance is more important than character and personality. According to the Health Canada (1997), â€Å"In the western culture slim is promoted not only as beautiful, healthy, and sexy but self-disciplined and good. Attractive people are perceived to be kind, interesting, outgoing, and to have a variety of socially desirable character traits. Ideal Woman :: essays research papers fc Does anybody know what the ideal woman is supposed to look like? Is this woman thin and tall or fat and short? Why are woman judged on how they look and how they dress, but males are not? Why are images of woman everywhere? Why do woman feel that they have to be gorgeous so society can love her? Believe it or not, society plays a big role in people lives. The biggest role it probably plays is how a female should look. For instance, if you look at the television, if you look at movies, and if you look in different magazines covers, most of the woman appears to look thin. Other woman sees this body image and they began to think they need to look like her. Most actresses today are becoming younger and thinner and some of them have an eating disorder in order to stay thin. Trying to keep the Barbie doll image is very dangerous to woman.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It is kind of hard to believe that some of our wants and needs are based on images, the Barbie doll look. According to Olds, 69% of woman said that magazine models influence their idea of the perfect body shape (Olds, 1999). The media send messages that if you are thin and beautiful then you will get whatever you want. According to a study by Health and Welfare Canada (1992), they documented that 37% of females age 11, 42% of females age 13, and 48% of female’s age 15 say they need to lose weight (National Eating Disorders Information Centre, 2000). Most women do not realize this but the media sends woman subliminal messages through television. The average woman sees about 400 to 600 advertisements per day (Dittrich), and by the time she is 17 years old, she has received over 250,000 commercial messages through the media (LaVoie). These messages from the media tells woman in order to be successful you must be attractive and thin, which is not really true. T oday beautiful young and thin woman sees everything. They sell products from alcohol to shoes, you see them everywhere. These messages tell woman that appearance is more important than character and personality. According to the Health Canada (1997), â€Å"In the western culture slim is promoted not only as beautiful, healthy, and sexy but self-disciplined and good. Attractive people are perceived to be kind, interesting, outgoing, and to have a variety of socially desirable character traits.

Final study guide

Final Exam Study Guide Know these people Carl Linnaeus- Swedish botanist who established a system for naming species that is still in use today; two-part name unique to each type of organism Jean Baptists Lamarckian-proposed that individuals change in response to challenges posed by the environment and the changed traits are then passed on to offspring Charles Darwin- said that species change over time but do not progress; individual variation is important and variation is what drives evolution Biodiversity How many species have been described? Approximately 1. 5 million (114 of all species) How many species remain to be described? What animals account for the greatest amount of species diversity? Insects How do we estimate biodiversity? Genetic diversity, species diversity, ecosystem diversity, change through time -variety and variability of life on earth, measured by species What are ecosystem services? Processes that increase the quality of the biotic environment -atmosphere and c limate, freshwater, nutrient cycling, pollination, pest population, disease What is an ecological footprint?How many additional planet earths would be required if all humans had the ecological footprint of an American? 4 planets Why is biodiversity important? Why study biodiversity? Economical and biological benefits Science What is a theory and how does it differ from a hypothesis? Well a hypothesis is a possible or tentative explanation for scientific findings that a scientist discovered during research. A theory is a tested by other scientists who get the same results as the previous scientists hypothesis Evolution and Natural Selection Why did Darwin delay the publication of The Origin of Species?Because of â€Å"special creation† was still very popular What is unfamiliarity's and how does it relate to the process of Natural Selection? Their ideas both relied on low changes over time rather than cataclysmic events that caused sudden upheaval or change What is a geometric progression;- -is a sequence of numbers where each term after the first is found by multiplying the previous one by a fixed, non-zero number called the common ratio -population growth what is an arithmetic progression? -increases by a constant difference (e. . , units of 1 or 2 or 3) -food supply -supply gradually increases with large population jumps How do these relate to populations and natural selection? – lack of resources causes competition Review the medium ground finch study (Gasping forties). What type of selection? Directional selection What influenced beak size? Since only big seeds became available, individuals with particularly large and deep beaks were more likely to crack these fruits efficiently enough to survive How did this relate to rainfall? He drought cause the sources of seeds as food to decline What are the conditions necessary for Natural Selection? – individuals vary -some variations are heritable -more offspring are produced than can survive - individuals with traits that confer an advantage are more likely to survive and reproduce What are the agents of evolutionary change – review notes on tuition, coneflower, nonrandom mating, genetic drift.Mutation-constantly introduces new alleles at all loci -increases genetic diversity in population -ultimate source of all genetic variability -random with respect to fitness Gene Flow- the movement of alleles from one population to another -random with respect to fitness -tends equalize allele frequencies among populations Nonrandom matting- nonrandom mating between relatives -causes inbreeding depression -helps selection weed out deleterious alleles Genetic Drift- any change in the allele frequencies in a population that is due o chance (luck, sampling error) ;causes allele frequencies to drift up and down randomly over time What is fitness? The ability of an individual to survive and reproduce, relative to other individuals in that population What is artificial selection? S elective breeding of domesticated plants and animals to produce offspring with desired genetic traits How does natural selection produce major change? Trial selection is the tendency of the ones best suited to survive in their environment to survive longer and pass on their genes more often – those genes then become more common and the harmful rations die out, gradually reshaping all life and fine-tuning it to it's environment. What is homology? The occurrence of similar features in different species because they both inherited the trait from a common ancestor What is the most common cause Of homophony? -convergent evolution -occurs when natural selection favors similar solutions to problems posed by a similar way of life What is a vestigial structure? Any rudimentary structure of unknown or minimal function that is homologous to functioning structures in other species -are thought to reflect evolutionary history How do imperfect structures relate to the theory of evolution b y Natural Selection?If evolution is true, then â€Å"imperfect design† is expected, because natural selection works to make an organism well-adapted, but not perfectly adapted, to their environment What is convergent evolution? Review the fish ichthyology example from class and the text. Process by which unrelated organisms independently evolve similarities when adapting to similar environments. Starting about 200 million years ago, these marine reptiles evolved body plans (and behavioral patterns) strikingly similar to those of odder dolphins and bluffing tuna (great example of convergent evolution) Be able to recognize disruptive, directional, stabilizing selection.Disruptive both extremes are favored, and the average phenotype is selected against – relatively rare -maintains genetic variation -plays a role in speciation-the generation of new species Directional- one extreme is favored, and the average phenotype (and the other extreme) is selected against -changes th e average value of a trait Stabilizing- reduces genetic variation -the average phenotype is favored, and both extremes are selected against – he average value of the trait does not change over time What is the difference between macroeconomics- Large-scale evolution occurring over geologic time that results in the formation of new taxonomic groups. ND microinstruction – evolution resulting from small specific genetic changes that can lead to a new subspecies Hardy-Weinberg You will not be asked to do any Hardy-Weinberg calculations What is the basic tenet of the Hardy-Weinberg Theorem? When alleles are transmitted via meiosis and random combination of gametes, their frequencies do not change over time -for evolution to occur, some other actor or factors must come into play -if the frequencies of alleles AH and AH in a population are given by p and q, then the frequencies of genotypes AH AH , AH AH, and AAA will be given by pa, ops, and sq for generation after generatio n What are the assumptions of the H-W Theorem? O natural selection -no genetic drift (no random allele frequency changes) -no gene flow via immigration or emigration -no mutation -random mating (with respect to the gene in question) pa -the predicted frequency of the offspring AH AH genotype* ops-the predicted frequency of the offspring AI genotype + sq -the predicted regency of the offspring AAA genotype= 1 : what are the allele frequencies, what are the genotype frequencies in a non-evolving population? Frequency of dominant allele the frequency of the recessive allele frequency of AAA (homozygous dominant) ops= frequency of AAA (heterozygous) sq= frequency of AAA (homozygous recessive) How do you recognize a population not in H-W equilibrium? If it does not equal one Why would a population not be in H-W equilibrium? B/c changes would occur and that would not be realistic Species and speciation Review the Biological Species Concept. Cost widely accepted concept -defines species as a population or group whose members have the potential to interbreed with one another in nature to produce viable, fertile offspring Be able to differentiate between Predating/Precocity-individuals of different species are prevented from mating, Postdating/Precocity and Posthypnotic- when individuals from different populations do mate, but species will have low fitness or fitness or offspring will be sterile barriers. What are the predating-Factors which cause species to mate with their own kind (assertive mating) and postdating barriers-Genomic incompatibility, hybrid amiability or sterility What are posthypnotic barriers? What is a hybrid?Temporal isolation-populations are isolated because they breed at different times Habitat Isolation- populations are isolated because they breed in different habitats Behavioral Isolation- populations do not interbreed because their courtship displays differ Gametes Barrier- mating fail because eggs and sperm are incompatible Mechanical Isolatio n- mating fail because male and female reproductive structures are incompatible Hybrid Viability- hybrid offspring do not develop normally and die as embryos Hybrid Sterility- hybrid offspring mature but are sterile as adults Hybrid-the offspring of parents from two different strains, populations, or species In very general terms what does the Biological Species Concept state about the nature of species? What are some of the problems with the Biological Species Concept? Tot applicable to asexual or fossil species; difficult to assess if populations do not overlap geographically Be able to define the terms symmetric-occurs even though gene flow is possible; is rare or nonexistent – even though symmetric populations are not physically isolated, they may be isolated by preferences for different habitats and allophonic- begins with physical isolation via either dispersal or vicariate What is the phylogeny species concept? -based on reconstructing the evolutionary history of popul ations What is the morphological species concept? Identifies evolutionary independent lineages by differences in morphological features – based on the idea that distinguishing features are most likely to arise if populations are independent and isolated from gene flow The Fossil Record and Mass extinctions What are the different types of facsimiled materials?Thousandth Microfossils- first animals on Earth -include tiny sponges Dedicated faunas- -include sponges, jellyfish, and comb jellies as well as facsimiled burrows, tracks, and other traces from unidentified animals -small, have no shells, limbs, heads, mouths, or feeding appendages -sat immobile on the seafloor, or floated in the Water Burgess Shale Faunas- sponges, jellyfish, and comb jellies, arthropods, and mollusks -tremendous increase in the size and morphological complexity of animals occurred, accompanied by diversification in how they made a living Fossil Intermediate- we can see the bridge between where we start ed and here we are now with these intermediate fossils How are rocks in fossils preserved?What are fossil intermediates? What was the Cambrian Explosion? When did it occur? About 563 million years ago What is a mass extinction? How many are there in the paleontologist record? Result from extraordinary, sudden, and temporary changes in the environment , 5 records What is the sixth mass extinction? The ongoing extinction of Earth's creatures caused by humans What are some of the putative causes for the Permian mass extinction? When did it occur? What percentage of species went extinct? 0% 251 million years ago When was the KIT mass extinction? 65 million What is the evidence that points to an asteroid strike as the trigger of the KIP extinction?Sedimentary rocks that formed at the KIT boundary contain very high amounts of iridium (rare on Earth, common in meteorites) -In Haiti, shocked quartz and micrometeorites are abundant in rock layers from this time period -The huge crater off th e coast of Mexico Yucatan Peninsula Review the timing and general characterizations of the Paleozoic-saw the origin and initial diversification of the animals, land plants, and fungi, as well as the appearance of land animals, Pre-Cambrian-life was exclusively unicellular for most Of Earth's history -oxygen was virtually absent from the oceans and atmosphere for almost 2 billion years after the origin of life, Mesozoic- extinction of dinosaurs -in terrestrial environments of the Mesozoic, gymnosperms were the most important plants and dinosaurs were the most important vertebrates, Cenozoic-on land, angiosperms were the most important plants and mammals were the most important vertebrates and Cambrian Phylogeny How does the principle of parsimony apply to phylogeny reconstruction? Deer parsimony, the most likely explanation or pattern is the one that implies the least amount of change -a computer compares the branching patterns that are theoretically possible and counts the number of changes in DNA sequences required to produce each pattern Define the following terms: contemporary-a trait found in certain groups of organisms that exists in no others -homologous trait (inherited from a common ancestor), Primitive A structure which is NOT exclusively shared only by all members of a group by virtue of descent from a common ancestor -cannot be used to extinguish between members of a group because all actually or ancestrally possess the Structure -Example: Vertebrae are possessed by all birds but also by all other vertebrates.Possession of vertebrae cannot be used to distinguish the birds from other batteries since all batteries including birds share that trait, ancestral-A trait shared by all members of a group through a common ancestor. , derived-A structure which IS exclusively shared ONLY by all members of a group by virtue of descent from a common ancestor -Example: Among vertebrates, feathers are possessed by all birds ND by NO OTHER VERTEBRATE -Possession of feathers CAN be used to didst anguish the birds from other batteries since no batteries except birds share that trait.. Of the above which provide the only real evidence for relationship? Derived Trait How do you establish if a character is derived or ancestral (hint: outgrip and ingrown)- Assume that the character in the outgrip is ancestral.Fifth character is different in the ingrown, then it is considered derived -To determine whether a character is ancestral or derived compare the character in the ingrown with that of the outgrip Define: monopolistic-an evolutionary unit that includes an ancestral population and all of its descendants but no others (also called a clawed or lineage), paralytic-an evolutionary unit that includes an ancestral population and some but not all of its descendants -meaningful unit in evolution, polytechnic-composed of unrelated organisms descended from more than one ancestor. Be able to recognize the above terms within the context of a phylogeny tree. O f the above terms which one is preferred? – monopolistic group Which is most likely the reality of any group? Reparability group Prokaryote (study sections 28. And 28. 3) What feature has contributed significantly to bacterial diversity? Be able to differentiate been gram-positive- have cell walls composed of a thick layer of pedagogical -bacteria that look purple when treated with a gram strain and gram-negative-bacteria that look pink when treated with a gram stain bacteria have a cell wall composed of a thin layer of pedagogical and an outer phosphoric layer bacteria. Review bacterial metabolic diversity (heterodox-acquire carbon containing compounds from other organisms, lithograph-oxidize inorganic ions such as ammonia or methane to fuel cellular aspiration etc. What features distinguish Reach-no nuclear envelope -circular chromosome -all unicellular -flagella spin like bacterial flagella, but in a distinctive molecular composition have unique phosphoric in their plasma membranes, Bacteria-no nuclear envelope -have pedagogical in their cell walls -flagella spin like propeller -almost all unicellular and Eukaryote-nuclear envelope -flagella undulate back and forth? Are prokaryote monopolistic-yes, because there are two main lineages that diverged very early in the history of life Protests (study sections 29. 1 , 29. 2 and 29. ) What is the domain Eukaryote? What is the endometriosis origin of eukaryote – who proposed it and what is the evidence supporting it?Mitochondria are most closely related to what group of bacteria – to what group are chloroplasts most closely related? Do protests form a monopolistic group? What groups must be included? Land Plants (study sections 30. 1 and 30. 3) What group is most closely related to land plants? Green Algae What features were the main features that allowed plants to inhabit and subsequently diversify on land? Terrestrial habitats have more sunlight and more CA than aquatic habitats -Preventing water loss: cuticle and stomata -upright growth and vascular tissue Review the general features of land plant phylogeny. What were the major features to evolve over the course of land plant history?

Clients With Osteoporosis Questionnaire Health And Social Care Essay

Analysis of informations is a procedure of inspecting, cleansing, transforming, and patterning informations with the end of foregrounding utile information, proposing decisions, and back uping determination devising. This chapter deals with the analysis and reading of informations collected from 30 samples on clients with Osteoporosis at Melmaruvathur Adhiparasakthi Institute of Medical Science and Research. This survey was done with questionnaire, structured evaluation graduated table and experimental checklist. Data analysis was done by utilizing descriptive and illative statistical process. The points were scored after appraisal and rating and the consequences were tabulated. The statistical methods used for analysis were average, standard divergence, gestural trial and correlativity.Description OF THE TOOLSDetailss of the tools in this survey are as follows ;PART- IDemographic variablesDemographic variables include age, gender, educational position, business, household monthly income, matrimonial position, faith, household history of co- morbid disease, diet and bad wonts.PART- IIStructured Rating ScaleStructured evaluation graduated table of Index of Severity of Osteoporosis by Lequesne appraisal tool was used to place the betterment in the wellness position of clients with Osteoporosis.PART- IIIIt includes Experimental Checklist of nursing intercessions for client with Osteoporosis.REPORT OF THE PILOT STUDYThe pilot survey was conducted on July of 2010 to happen out the effectivity of n ursing attention on clients with Osteoporosis in Melmaruvathur Adhiparasakthi Institute of Medical Sciences and Research, Melmaruvathur, Kanchipuram District for a period of two hebdomads. A Index of Severity of Osteoporosis by Lequesne and was used by the research worker and used to happen out the dependability, cogency which was evaluated by the experts of the research commission. A convenient sampling technique was used to choose three samples by agencies of structured evaluation graduated table to measure the wellness position of clients with Osteoporosis. The nursing attention was provided as per the tool and wellness position was evaluated, eventually the research was analysed based on the mark. Therefore the nursing attention was extremely effectual on clients with Osteoporosis.CogencyThe tool was prepared by the research worker under the counsel of experts and on the footing of aims, which were assessed and evaluated, accepted by the experts of research commission. Content c ogency of this instrument was obtained from nursing experts.DependabilityThe dependability was checked by an interater method. The dependability was 0.80 by utilizing Cronbach & A ; acirc ; ˆâ„ ¢s expression. After the nursing attention was provided, gestural trial was used and found that nursing intercessions was effectual.INFORMED CONSENTThe research worker obtained written consent from the Managing Director, Melmaruvathur Adhiparasakthi Institute of Medical Sciences and Research and from the Principal of Adhiparasakthi College of Nursing, Melmaruvathur. Oral consent was taken from the survey participant to carry on the survey. The information aggregation was done for six hebdomads by utilizing interview and experimental method.DATA COLLECTION PROCEDUREThe informations were collected from the Osteoporosis clients who were admitted in Melmaruvathur Adhiparasakthi Institute of Medical Sciences and Research in Orthopaedic ward for the six hebdomads of survey period. A good res onance was maintained with the clients in order to derive the co- operation of the clients throughout the survey. After roll uping demographic informations, appraisal was done with the aid of standardised evaluation graduated table. The nursing attention was given utilizing a experimental checklist. On the twenty-four hours of discharge the client & A ; acirc ; ˆâ„ ¢s wellness position was evaluated with the aid of same structured evaluation graduated table.SCORE INTERPRETATIONThe mark was interpretated as follows ; Mark reading = Obtained score ten 100 Entire markSCORE DESCRIPTIONDescriptionPercentageHealthy Mild wellness impairment Moderate wellness impairment Severe wellness impairment Less than 25 % 25- 50 % 50- 75 % More than 75 %STATISTICAL METHODS.No.DATA ANALYSISMethodRemark1 Descriptive statistics Frequency per centum, Mean, Standard divergence To depict the demographic variables. 2 Inferential statistics 1.Sign trial 2.Correlation Analyzing the effectivity between pre appraisal and station rating of wellness position of the clients with Osteoporosis. Correlation between selected demographic variables and rating of wellness position of clients with Osteoporosis. Data analysis and reading were done under following headers. Section- A: Distribution of selected demographic variables of clients with Osteoporosis. Section- B: Frequency and per centum distribution of wellness position of clients with Osteoporosis. Section- C: Comparison of mean and standard divergence of appraisal and rating mark of effectivity of nursing attention on clients with Osteoporosis. Section- D: Mean and standard divergence of betterment mark for clients with Osteoporosis SECTION- Tocopherol: Correlation between selected demographic variables and effectivity of nursing attention on clients with Osteoporosis.SECTION- A Table 4.1: Distribution of selected demographic variables of clients with OsteoporosisN= 30S.No.DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLESFrequencyPercentage1 Age ( In old ages ) 18- 32 33- 45 46- 58 & A ; gt ; 58 0 7 16 7 0 23.3 53.3 23.3 2 Gender Male Female 5 25 16.7 83.3 3 Education Status Illiterate Primary school Higher Secondary Graduate/ College 12 10 4 4 40 33.3 13.3 13.3 4 Occupation Employed Unemployed Retired Others 17 6 7 0 56.7 20.0 23.3 0 5 Family & A ; acirc ; ˆâ„ ¢s monthly Income ( in Rs. ) Up to 2000 2001- 4000 4001- 6000 Above 6001 7 11 6 6 23.3 36.7 20 20 6 Marital Status Married Unmarried Widow/ Widower Divorced 21 0 9 0 70 0 30 0 7 Religion Hindoo Christian Moslem Others 10 5 15 0 33.3 16.7 50.0 0 8 History of any co- morbid disease Osteoporosis Other Orthopaedic Problems None Both 15 5 9 1 50.0 16.7 30.0 3.3 9 Diet Vegetarian Non- Vegetarian 15 15 50 50 10 Bad Habits Alcohol Smoking Both None 3 2 4 21 10 6.7 13.3 70 Table 4.1 implies the distribution of respondents harmonizing to certain demographic factors such as age, gender, educational position, business, household monthly income, matrimonial position, faith, household history of carbon monoxide ; morbid disease, diet and bad wonts. Out of 30 clients 7 ( 23.3 per centum ) clients were in the age group 33- 45 old ages, 16 ( 53.3 per centum ) clients were in the age group of 46- 58 old ages, 7 ( 23.3 per centum ) clients were in the age group of above 58 old ages. Most of the clients, 16 ( 53.3 per centum ) were in the age group of 46- 58 old ages. Sing gender 5 ( 16.7 per centum ) of clients are male and 25 ( 83.3 per centum ) of clients are female. Majority of clients, 25 ( 83.3 per centum ) were females. Out of 30 clients 12 ( 40 per centum ) clients are illiterate, 10 ( 33.3 per centum ) clients completed primary school, 4 ( 13.3 per centum ) clients completed high school, and 4 ( 13.3 per centum ) clients are graduate / college. Most of the clients, 12 ( 40 per centum ) are illiterate. Sing business 17 ( 56.7 per centum ) of clients are employed and 6 ( 20 per centum ) of clients are unemployed and 7 ( 23.3 per centum ) are retired. Majority of clients, 17 ( 56.7 per centum ) are illiterate. In instance of household monthly income up to Rs. 2000/- was drawn by 7 ( 23.3 per centum ) clients, 11 ( 36.7 per centum ) had monthly income of Rs. 2001/- to Rs. 4000/- , 6 ( 20 per centum ) were in the income group of Rs. 4001/- to Rs. 6000/- and 6 ( 20 per centum ) clients had a monthly income of above Rs. 6000/- . Most of the clients, 11 ( 36.7 per centum ) had monthly income of Rs. 2001/- to Rs. 4000/- While analyzing the matrimonial position of clients 21 ( 70 per centum ) are married and 9 ( 30 per centum ) were widower/ widow. Most of the clients 21 ( 70 per centum ) are married. 10 ( 33.3 per centum ) of clients are Hindu were as 5 ( 16.7 per centum ) of clients are Christian and 15 ( 50 per centum ) are Muslim. Majority 15 ( 50 per centum ) of clients are Muslim. Out of 30 clients 15 ( 50 per centum ) clients are with co- household history of Osteoporosis, 5 ( 16.7 per centum ) clients are with household history of other orthopedic jobs, 9 ( 30 per centum ) clients are with no co- morbid disease and 1 ( 3.3 per centum ) is with both household history of Osteoporosis every bit good as other orthopedic jobs, Most of the clients, 15 ( 50 per centum ) clients are with household history of Osteoporosis. Sing diet 15 ( 50 per centum ) of clients are vegetarian and 15 ( 50 per centum ) of clients are non- vegetarian. While analyzing the bad wonts 3 ( 10 per centum ) of clients are holding the wont of devouring intoxicant and 2 ( 6.7 per centum ) are of clients with the wont of smoke, 4 ( 13.3 per centum ) are with both the wonts. 21 ( 70 per centum ) of clients do non hold any bad wonts. Majority of clients, 12 ( 70 per centum ) do non hold any bad wonts.SECTION- B Table 4.2: Frequency and per centum distribution of wellness position of clients with OsteoporosisN= 30.S.NoHealth STATUSAppraisalEvaluationNumberPercentageNumberPercentage1 Healthy 0 0 5 16.7 2 Mild wellness impairment 6 20 24 70 3 Moderate wellness impairment 22 73.3 1 3.3 4 Severe wellness impairment 2 6.7 0 0 Table 4.2 shows that at the clip of immediate station operative period wellness position of clients were assessed, out of 30 clients 2 ( 6.7 per centum ) were in terrible wellness impairment, 22 ( 73.3 per centum ) were in moderate wellness impairment and 6 ( 20 per centum ) are in mild wellness impairment. At the clip of discharge the wellness position of clients were evaluated, out of 30 clients 5 ( 16.7 ) were healthy, 24 ( 70 per centum ) are in mild wellness impairment, merely 1 ( 3.3 per centum ) are in moderate wellness impairment and 5 ( 16.7 per centum ) were healthy.Section- C Table 4.3: Comparison of mean and standard divergence of appraisal and rating mark of clients with OsteoporosisN= 30.S.No.Health STATUSMeanStandardDeviationCONFIDENCE INTERVAL1 Appraisal 30.8 3.06 31.28- 28.2 2 Evaluation 16.96 3.94 17.96- 14.44 Table 4.3 indicates assessment average value 30.8 with standard divergence of 3.06 and rating mean value 16.96 with standard divergence of 3.94.SECTION- D Table 4.4 Mean and standard divergence of betterment mark for clients with OsteoporosisN= 30.S.No.Health STATUSMeanStandard DEVIATIONSecondValueKValue1 Improvement mark 13.83 3.64 2 5.38 **p & A ; lt ; 0.05 degree of significance Table 4.4 shows that betterment score average with 13.83 and standard divergence of 3.64. The K value is 2 and S value is 5.38. Since the deliberate value is greater than table value, it implies that there was statistically extremely important betterment in wellness position of clients with Osteoporosis after the post- operative nursing attention at 0.05 degree of significance. Thus the nursing attention on clients with Osteoporosis was effectual.Section- E Table 4.5: Correlation between the selected demographic variables with the effectivity of nursing attention of clients with Osteoporosis.S.No.DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLESAppraisalEvaluationRSevere wellness impairmentModerate wellness impairmentModerate wellness impairmentMild wellness impairmentNo.%No%No%No%1 Age ( In old ages ) 18- 32 33- 45 46- 58 & A ; gt ; 58 0 1 0 1 0 3.3 0 3.3 0 6 10 6 0 20 3.3 20 0 1 0 0 0 3.3 0 0 0 6 16 7 0 20 53.3 23.3 -0.3 2 Gender Male Female 0 2 0 6.7 3 19 10 63.3 0 1 0 3.3 5 24 16.7 80 -0.8 3 Education Status Illiterate Primary school Higher Secondary Graduate/ College 1 0 0 1 3.3 0 0 3.3 9 6 4 3 30 20 13.3 10 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 3.3 12 10 4 3 40 33.3 13.3 10 0.4* 4 Occupation Employed Un- employed Retired Others 4 2 0 0 13.3 6.7 0 0 12 4 6 0 40 13.3 20 0 1 0 0 0 3.3 0 0 0 16 6 7 0 53.3 20 23.3 0 -0.1 5 Family & A ; acirc ; ˆâ„ ¢s monthly Income ( in Rs. ) Up to 2000 2001- 4000 4001- 6000 6001- 8000 0 1 0 1 0 3.3 0 3.3 5 8 4 5 16.7 26.7 13.3 16.7 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 3.3 7 11 6 5 23.3 36.7 20 16.7 0.3 6 Marital Status Married Unmarried Widow/ Widower Divorced 1 0 1 0 3.3 0 3.3 0 16 0 6 0 53.3 0 20 0 1 0 0 0 3.3 0 0 0 20 0 9 0 66.7 0 30 0 -0.1 7 Religion Hindoo Christian Moslem Others 1 1 0 0 3.3 3.3 0 0 6 3 13 0 20 10 43.3 0 1 0 0 0 3.3 0 0 0 9 5 15 0 30 16.7 50 0 -0.2 8 Family history of any co- morbid disease Osteoporosis Other orthopedic jobs None Both 2 0 0 0 6.7 0 0 0 10 5 7 0 33.3 16.7 23.3 0 0 1 0 0 0 3.3 0 0 14 5 9 1 46.7 16.7 30 3.3 -0.2 9 Diet Vegetarian Non- vegetarian 1 1 3.3 3.3 11 11 36.7 36.7 14 15 46.7 50 1 0 3.3 0 -0.2 10 Bad wonts Alcohol Smoking Both None 0 1 0 1 0 3.3 0 3.3 1 1 1 19 3.3 3.3 3.3 63.3 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 3 2 4 20 30 6.7 13.3 16.7 0.1 **p & A ; lt ; 0.05 degree of significance Table 4.5 indicates that there was statistically no important correlativity between selected demographic variables like age, gender, business, household monthly income, matrimonial position and faith, household history of co- morbid disease, diet and bad wonts. There is important correlativity in educational position.

Liaison in health setting The WritePass Journal

Liaison in health setting Introduction Liaison in health setting ). Reasons for the development of this disorder include anxiety and depression. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): a type of therapy that encourages change in the way that one thinks and acts in accordance to certain situations. Therefore, the therapy is cognitive in that it addresses how one thinks and behavioral in addressing how one acts (NHS, 2012). Challenges The challenge with this research is in the CBT and BED aspects of the respective countries. It is safe to assume that effective health care services can be given to those suffering depression, anxiety and low self-esteem with either party, however how does the establishment of a mental health care institute significantly improve the obesity statistics. A mental health care institution is highly advantageous to patients requiring in-patient care in the facility. Would it not be more efficient to provide a more effective out-patient mental health care facility where patients could receive long-term therapy without some kind of committal? This would save cost of building the facility allowing a reallocation of the budget to more staff to improve the reach of the institute and improve the research output of the institute. The social stigma attached to mental illness is great in both the U.K and Saudi Arabia. However, the private and conservative cultural climate of Saudi Arabia may make the goals of the institute more challenging as it would require a dialogue on a topic that is considered ‘taboo’ in many societies, i.e. addiction and potentially sexual abuse. Particularly with relation to children and sexual abuse, it is foreseeable that there may be challenges in collecting data for research such as this. With children there is a large element of parental control and with information as to the causes of obesity and the depth of CBT in psychological treatment, there may be hesitation on the part of the family to ‘allow’ treatment of the child. What other support and partnerships are looking to be formed in the establishment of this institute? There are a number of associated medical professions that are absolutely critical in combating childhood obesity, such as general medical practitioners, dietitians and nutritionists, exercise consultants and a large need for a form of liaison between the institute and parents. The entirety of obesity as a disease cannot be treated in isolation and how does one continue to have a large reach for research and treatment if there are financial limitations on these projects, as well as requiring a thorough and high level of expertise. Conclusion The use of mental health facilities as a treatment programme for childhood obesity is undoubtedly effective. The parameters of this institution must be carefully monitored and defined in order to determine the best possible solution to obesity crisis facing the world. It is recommended that these facilities provide a strong out-patient programme to allow for greater reach in the community that it is looking to serve in order to reach a larger number of patients and create awareness and education for these issues surrounding obesity. Education on the issue is absolutely vital. The stronger emphasis on an out-patient programme will also allow a reallocation of resources to employ more health care professional serving an overall purpose of the mental health care institute – being to target childhood obesity. This also allows for treatment that is minimally disruptive to the child’s everyday activities and will not serve to isolate the child, as many in-patient programmes o ften do. One needs to be specifically mindful of the societal implications and stigma attached to mental health care services and in doing so look to mitigate any harmful societal or cultural effects that the treatment may have on the child or their relationships with peers and their family members, at the same time ensuring that there is an effective establishment of the required support network to aid the child in their journey. Bibliography Al-Nuiam, AR,  Bamgboye EA   al-Herbish A, 1996 ‘The pattern of growth and obesity in Saudi Arabian male school children.’ International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders : Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity, 20(11), pp 1000 5 Davis and Carter, 2009 ‘Psychobiological traits in the risk profile for overeating and weight gain: Psychobiological risk profile’ International Journal of Obesity, 33, s49 53 Ebbeling, Cara, Dorota B Pawlak David S Ludwig, 2002, ‘Childhood obesity: public-health crisis, common sense cure’, The Lancet, 460, pp 473 482 Goldfarb, Lori, 1987. ‘Sexual abuse antecedent to anorexia nervosa, bulimia, and compulsive overeating: Three case reports.’ International Journal of Eating Disorders, 6(5), pp 675-680 National Healthcare Service United Kingdom, 2012. [online] Available on nhs.uk/Conditions [Accessed 10 June 2012] Parsons TJ,  Power C,  Logan S   Summerbell CD, 1999 ‘Childhood predictors of adult obesity: a systematic review.’ International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders : Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity, 23, pp 1 107 Strauss, Richard, 2000 ’Childhood Obesity and Self-Esteem’ Pediatrics ¸105, pp15

Sociolgical Essay Example

Sociolgical Essay Example Sociolgical Essay Sociolgical Essay Americans Disabilities Act (DAD): If you have a disability that qualifies under the Americans with Disabilities Act and you require special assistance or accommodations, you should contact the designated coordinator for your campus for Information on appropriate guidelines and procedures: Polarities Campus, Tania Moody at 601-403-1060 or [emailprotected] Du; Forrest County Center, Deborah Hewitt at 601-554-5503 or [emailprotected] Du; Hancock Center, Raymond Barnes at 228-252-7000 or [emailprotected] Du. Distance Learning Students who require special assistance. Accommodations, and/or need for alternate format should contact Tania Moody at [emailprotected] Du. Course Description: This Is an introductory course designed to give a general overview of the perspectives, concepts, and methodology of sociology. Students will be encouraged to think critically about social life. Three semester hours credit. Course Goals and Objectives: The course goals and objectives will be met if, upon com pletion, the student Is conversant with the following Important aspects of Sociology: the Sociological Perspective, Culture, Colonization, Social Structure and Social Interaction, Social Groups and Formal Organizations, Deviance and Social Control, Global Stratification, Social Class in the United States, Inequities of Race and Ethnicity, Inequalities of Gender and Age, Politics and the Economy, Marriage and Family Issues, Education and Religion, Population and arbitration, and the Impact of Technology on Social Change. Outcome Competencies: upon completion of the course, students will be able to: Communicate both the scientific rigor and personal relevance of Sociology. Clearly explain the Sociological concepts and how they are linked. Summarize the important issues in Sociology that impact their own worldview. Discuss controversial topics in I OFF set the stage for todays research. Personalize historical figures in Sociology with interesting details about their lives and contributions to the discipline. Relate what they have learned about Sociology to their personal lives and to their relationships with others. Required Text: Heinlein, James M. (2012). Essentials of Sociology: A Down to Earth Approach. 10th deed. Boston: Pearson. ISBN: 978+205-89847-3 Weekly Schedule: The school week for this course will run from Monday to Sunday. You are expected to maintain pace with the course schedule, which includes weekly readings, discussion board participation, assignments, and occasional quizzes. You are also expected to check Canvas weekly for announcements, potential changes to the course calendar, and occasional bonus point assignments. All assignments will be posted on Monday under the modules tab on the course website. These assignments are due Sunday evening at 1 1 pm. Attendance and Absences: This is not a self-paced, independent study course. This course has specific assignments that must be completed at the end of each week. Students that do not complete at least one assignment during the week will be marked absent. Absences will be tabulated the Monday morning at 8:maam following the week in which assignments are made available on Canvas. For example, most weeks you are assigned a discussion assignment and a quiz. If you dont complete any of these assignments, you will be marked absent. If you complete at least one assignment you will be marked present. However, in order to be successful in this class, it is recommended that you must complete all of your assignments. You will receive a warning notice after each absence. Once you have reached your third absence, you will be removed from this course and receive a W. Even though you may be marked absent from failing to submit assignments by Monday morning at am, you can still submit assignments the following week with a late penalty. Excused Absences: The only university excused absences are those that are a result of a school sponsored activity. Because you have a week to complete all assignments, it is expected that you try and work around these school functions. For example, a football game on a Thursday does not excuse you from completing assignments for that week since you have six other days to complete them. In some rare circumstances will you be officially excused for school trips. In that event, the appropriate school sponsor will notify me. For all other extenuating circumstances (illness, family death, etc. ) please notify me ahead of time and I will work with you to extend deadlines. NOTE: A broken computer or no internet does not constitute an excused absence or legitimate reason to extend assignments. You should always be prepared with a back up plan in the event of these circumstances. You always have the option to go to the local library or school campus to complete work. Board forum. The purpose of this forum is to build class community and to encourage dialogue amongst your peers. Some of these topics are controversial by nature. It is expected that you keep all postings objective, respectful, and academic in nature. Those that are offensive will be removed and will not be given any credit. Furthermore, students who continue to post offensive dialogue despite instructor intervention may be removed from the course. Weekly Quizzes: Every few weeks you will be required to complete a quiz. These quizzes will help prepare you for the content covered in the midterm and final exam. The quizzes will be multiple-choice questions, fill in the blank, short answer, and will be timed. Proctored Exams: You are required to schedule your final exam through a proctoring center. You are required to schedule exams early so that you can find a time that meets your schedule. I do not accept the excuse of proctoring centers are full or l oldest come at any times they had available. You are required to take your exam by the required due date (see course home page for dates). You can schedule an exam on the learning website. Keep in mind that during the summer, proctoring centers are closed on Fridays. Course Requirements/Grading: Your course grade is calculated out of one proctored final exam, weekly discussion boards, and quizzes. There will also be opportunities throughout the semester to gain bonus points. These opportunities will be posted on the Announcements page and will each have specific deadlines. A breakdown of points for the class is as follows: Quizzes: 40% Discussion Board other weekly assignments: 35% Final Examination (cumulative): 25% Academic Honesty: Plagiarism is a serious offense and will not be tolerated in any written work, including reaction papers or blob posts. If your papers are popularized, they will be graded accordingly. Options include, but are not limited to, failing the assignment, failing the course, and/or expulsion from school. Students can expect their writing submissions to be monitored by computer software designed to expose and document plagiarism.

Dubois Surname Meaning and Origin

Dubois Surname Meaning and Origin The ancient French surname duBois derived from the Old French bois meaning wood and was a French topographical name given to a man who lived or worked in the woods, or who worked as a woodcutter. Similar in origin to the WOOD surname in England and America. DUBOIS is the 8th most popular surname in France. Surname Origin:  French Alternate Surname Spellings:  BOIS, DUBOS, DUBOST, DUBOISE, DEBOSE, DUBAIS, DUBAISE, DESBOIS, BOST, DUBOICE, DUBOYS, DUBOSC, DUBUSK Where Do People With the DUBOIS Surname Live? WorldNames PublicProfiler identifies the largest population of individuals with the DuBois surname in France followed, as you might expect, by Belgium and Switzerland, and then Canada. Within France, the surname is most prevalent in the northern regions of Nord-Pas-de-Calais and Picardie, followed by the Wallonie region of Belgium. The name in France is also fairly common throughout the central part of the country, from Paris stretching north, east and west. Data from Forebears agrees, ranking DuBois as the 4th most common surname in France and 17th in Belgium. It is also prevalent in French territories and collectives such as New Caledonia and French Polynesia, as well as countries which formerly belonged to France, such as The Ivory Coast. The Dubose surname variant is most commonly found in the United States. Famous People With the Surname DUBOIS Allison DuBois - American psychic/mediumW.E.B. duBois - African-American writer, historian and socialistAntoine DuBois - French surgeonCharles Frà ©dà ©ric Dubois - Belgian naturalistLouis DuBois -  Huguenot colonist in New NetherlandShirley Graham Du Bois - American writer, composer and civil rights activist Genealogy Resources for the Surname DUBOIS Common French Surnames Their MeaningsUncover the meaning of your French last name with this free guide to French surnames meanings and origins. DuBose-DuBois DNA ProjectOver 100 group members belong to this Y-DNA surname project, working together to combine DNA testing with traditional genealogy research to sort out DuBose and DuBois ancestral lines. Includes individuals with DuBoise, DuBoice, DuBoys, DuBosc, DuBusk and similar surname variants.   Dubois Family Crest - Its Not What You ThinkContrary to what you may hear, there is no such thing as a Dubois family crest or coat of arms for the Dubois surname.  Coats of arms are granted to individuals, not families, and may rightfully be used only by the uninterrupted male-line descendants of the person to whom the coat of arms was originally granted.   DuBois Family Genealogy ForumSearch this popular genealogy forum for the Dubois surname to find others who might be researching your ancestors, or post your own Dubois query. FamilySearchAccess over 1.7 million free historical records and lineage-linked family trees posted for the Collins surname and its variations on this free genealogy website hosted by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. DUBOIS Surname Family Mailing ListsRootsWeb hosts several free mailing lists for researchers of the Dubois surname.  You can also browse or search the list archives to explore previous postings for the Dubois surname. The DuBois Genealogy and Family Tree PageBrowse family trees and links to genealogical and historical records for individuals with the last name Dubois from the website of Genealogy Today. References Cottle, Basil. Penguin Dictionary of Surnames. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1967.Menk, Lars. A Dictionary of German Jewish Surnames. Bergenfield, NJ: Avotaynu, 2005.Beider, Alexander. A Dictionary of Jewish Surnames from Galicia.  Bergenfield, NJ:  Avotaynu, 2004.Hanks, Patrick and Flavia Hodges. A Dictionary of Surnames. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.Hanks, Patrick. Dictionary of American Family Names. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.Hoffman, William F. Polish Surnames: Origins and Meanings.  Chicago:  Polish Genealogical Society, 1993.Rymut, Kazimierz. Nazwiska Polakow.  Wroclaw: Zaklad Narodowy im. Ossolinskich - Wydawnictwo, 1991.Smith, Elsdon C. American Surnames. Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Company, 1997.

Metabolic Syndrome and Diabetes Mellitus Case Study

Metabolic Syndrome and Diabetes Mellitus - Case Study Example In early diabetes mellitus, it has been stated that the ability of muscles to take up and utilize glucose are decreased by more than 50 percent. A major effect of glucagon occurs next in the pathology when it stimulates the release of excessive glucose from the live. Also, it is known that fat tissues in the body are resistant to the effects of insulin and they release free fatty acids which are a major contributor in the development of insulin resistant (Byrne, 2011). The release of free fatty acids from dysfunctional fat cells leads to increased insulin resistance. Adipocytes also release certain chemical mediator which act on the pancreatic beta cells and deteriorate their function. On the other hand it is a well-known fact that insulin has a lipolytic effect i.e. it causes breakdown of additional fatty tissues in the body and avoids accumulation of fat in the body. In type 2 diabetes mellitus patients who are already obese, insulin resistance develops over time and leads to deterioration of the function of beta cells of pancreas. Free fatty acids produced by adipocytes are transferred to the liver where they act on liver cells and inhibit the formation of glycogen from glucose. This results in the release of high levels of glucose from the liver. Early stages of the disease see high levels of insulin and high levels of blood glucose at the same time however the with decreased functional capacity of beta cells and their destruction in the course of the disease, blood levels of insulin decrease. This decrease in the levels of insulin leads to the accumulation of fat in the body and causes abdominal obesity (Byrne, 2011). Microvascular changes are of profound importance in type 2 diabetes mellitus since they can lead to fatal consequences. One of the major causes behind these microvascular changes is continuous hypertension in type 2 diabetes. Hypertension is caused by loss of the ability of

Assessment of organization culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Assessment of organization culture - Essay Example Thus, in the organization there is a powerful force that determines individual and group behavior of the personnel. Risk taking or innovation is a controversial issue for the companies and the resolution depends on people’s perception (Ben 2015). McDonald’s is oriented on external innovation and it is a client-oriented company. Thus all the innovations are made if clients demand them. The technological and menu innovations affect the work of personnel, which should be always ready for the new and sustainable to stress. However, the principles set by the founder of the company are still thoroughly followed (McDonald’s — Company Overview). Attention to details is a criterion that evaluates how employees are accurate in their work. McDonald’s pays much attention to this aspect of the organization culture, because it is extremely important. Therefore McDonalds’s is focused on this cultural aspect and employees’ performance is mainly examined for their attention to the detail in their work. Accuracy and precision in work is core characteristic of this organization. This characteristic of the organization demonstrates how the employees in organization are result-oriented and focused on the achievements. McDonald’s is a highly result-oriented organization, which measures employees’ performance by the targets the company has achieved People play a very important role in the technology of McDonald’s as a computer, or information system can’t work as quickly as a brain of a person. The majority of information in the kitchen of McDonalds is transferred by people, and computers only provide some help, because data should be transferred very quickly. This aspect refers to organizational culture where activities are organized around team rather than individuals (Ben 2015). The work of McDonald’s is posible only in team, every employee is a part of this team and has his own role. Aggressiveness is

Porters five forces analysis - Beats by Dre Essay

Porters five forces analysis - Beats by Dre - Essay Example To analyze the market share taken by the headphones in the market, we will focus on the forces outlined in the model to discuss this. Firstly, we will focus on the supplier’s power in the global market. The company is one of the largest manufacturers of headphones in the global market. It manufactures high-end headphones, which most consumers consider them quality and classy. Further, company’s ability to manufacture them in different colours makes it even better. Most of the headphones are ‘U’ shaped. From a recent report published in business review, the company had acquired sixty-four percent of the entire market shares. Most users of the headphones view it as a fashion accessory mostly used by celebrities in the hip-hop music industry. The company has the capacity to manufacture and satisfy the global market. Secondly, the model helps its users to analyze the buying power of consumers who are its target consumers. The company appreciates that it has customers from different lifestyles hence it manufactures products as per their needs and requests. Therefore, the management has ensured that the prices of their products and software’s are all affordable to their customers in the global market. Further, the company follows the current rates of inflation in the world’s economy. To emphasize, most of the customers lies in the age bracket of 19-35 years who love to be trendy and follow the latest themes in the world of fashion. This gives the company an upper hand because their products are always on demands.

Security Audits Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Security Audits - Essay Example Network Security Audits. http://www.securityspace.com/smy) Furthermore, it can diminish the security loopholes or any flaws that exist in the company’s current IT infrastructure. In order to enforce this policy, one must understand that running a security audit can save an organization millions of dollars in case of a crucial emergency(2011). Network Security Audits. http://www.securityspace.com/smy). It can dynamically help an organization be prepared for disasters and mitigate the IT risks that can potentially threaten its sensitive information. Security audits are beneficial because they also ensure that the security systems are in fact working (2011). Network Security Audits. http://www.securityspace.com/smy). Without a doubt, there are numerous benefits of both internal and external auditing. Internal audits can be beneficial as they catch management’s attention in critical business issues (2001). Internal audit. http://www.entrepreneur.com/tra). It lets management understand and analysis the current weaknesses in the system of the control and make key suggestions to improve these controls (2001). Internal audit. http://www.entrepreneur.com/tra). Moreover, one cannot diminish the fact that internal audits clearly give positive reassurance to management when controls are operating in an effective manner (2001). Internal audit. http://www.entrepreneur.com/tra). It gives the organization confidence to rely on their systems and to penetrate the technology aspect to gain a competitive advantage. Lastly, internal auditing can give management an early notice of risk and potential problems that can be addressed before any harm is conjured. The best way to understand the necessity of a sec urity audit is to look at real-life scenarios. For example, a company can run sample testing on certain users who have unauthorized access to log on accounts which have been the root cause of financial

Programming Language Ada 95 Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Programming Language Ada 95 - Research Paper Example However, more than 450 programming languages were utilized to manage numerous working projects of Department of Defense but none of them was standardized. The main reason could be the absence of reusability. For these reasons, the Navy, Army and Air Force planned to build a high-level programming language especially for embedded systems (The Language Guide, 1997; Kempe, 1995). Thus, the Ada emerged as a programming language designed to facilitate the development of extremely reliable and long-standing embedded software systems. This language comprises capabilities to describe packages of associated objects, types and relevant operations. Additionally, the language packages can be classified and the types can be extended in order to facilitate the development of language libraries of adaptable and reusable software parts. In addition, these processes can be applied in forms of sub-programs with usual sequential programming control structures, or as accesses that comprise synchronizati on of simultaneous operational threads of control as a fraction of their invocation. Moreover, the programming language is capable of dealing with modularity in the physical way as well with a potential to up-hold split compilation (Kempe, 1995). This report will discuss different aspects of Ada95 programming language. ... In this programming language, different kinds of issue and error are indicated through exceptions and managed explicitly. Additionally, the programming language as well includes the features for system programming; which allows accurate control over the illustration of data and access to system reliant-properties. Most importantly, this programming language offers a comprehensive and predefined programming setting of standard packages comprising amenities for, among others, string handling, input-output, random number generation and numeric elementary functions (Kempe, 1995). HISTORY In 1970s, the United States DoD (Department of Defense) was worried due to a number of different programming languages being utilized for developing and managing its embedded systems and other computer system projects as well as most of them were outdated or hardware reliant and none of them allowed for safe modular programming. Thus, in year 1975, The Department of Defense formed a technology working gr oup known as High Order Language Working Group (HOLWG), with the intention of minimizing this figure by discoing or finding or developing a single technology based programming language which could be used to manage all the embedded systems. As a result Ada emerged (Kempe Software Capital Enterprises, 2011; Feldman, 1999; eNotes.com, Inc., 2011). In addition, Ada programming language greatly took attention of the programming community all through its early days. Its backers as well as others forecasted that it would become a leading language for wide-ranging principle programming as well as not immediately defense-related tasks. In this scenario, Ichbiah widely stated that within 10 years, just two programming languages would stay Ada and Lisp. In

Analysis Activities Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Analysis Activities - Essay Example Each step is important in analysis to ensure the validity of data. Without qualitative data, analysis can be skewed. It is imperative to understand that data produces results that can be transferred in raw info. In any manner, each step should be carefully analyzed because it holds significance and raw weight to Qualitative measures. Standardization and normalization of data is truly essential for quality data. Standardization of each approach falls under best business practices. These practices allow the accumulation of best practices that are vital towards harnessing growth. This information and analysis leads to more conclusive evidence of the process itself. For instance, if the executing stage fails to fall under the scope, then it is evident for leadership to interfere and rectify that issue. Yes, it is clear that findings should be fully documented and audited for compliance. As a matter of fact, the art of auditing is one of the most pivotal elements in the field of accounting and dictates the criteria of embedding controls in an organization. The nature of auditing might seem trivial, but actually contains intricate details that an accountant must embrace. With these ever-growing challenges, the governing bodies that define auditing principles so have become stringent in their regulation. The IRS, SEC, and AICPA all have collaborated within each other to create standards that can serve as a backbone for an alignment of best business practices, which is why documentation becomes a necessity. Signoffs are essential for leadership to understand what is at stake. The executive management must make important decisions in revenue and sales that can impact bottom-line performance. For instance, many financial discrepancies can be a huge factor. Often times in a project, expectations are not met that are defined in scope and the WBS. Thus, creating contingency strategies is pivotal

Programming Language Ada 95 Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Programming Language Ada 95 - Research Paper Example However, more than 450 programming languages were utilized to manage numerous working projects of Department of Defense but none of them was standardized. The main reason could be the absence of reusability. For these reasons, the Navy, Army and Air Force planned to build a high-level programming language especially for embedded systems (The Language Guide, 1997; Kempe, 1995). Thus, the Ada emerged as a programming language designed to facilitate the development of extremely reliable and long-standing embedded software systems. This language comprises capabilities to describe packages of associated objects, types and relevant operations. Additionally, the language packages can be classified and the types can be extended in order to facilitate the development of language libraries of adaptable and reusable software parts. In addition, these processes can be applied in forms of sub-programs with usual sequential programming control structures, or as accesses that comprise synchronizati on of simultaneous operational threads of control as a fraction of their invocation. Moreover, the programming language is capable of dealing with modularity in the physical way as well with a potential to up-hold split compilation (Kempe, 1995). This report will discuss different aspects of Ada95 programming language. ... In this programming language, different kinds of issue and error are indicated through exceptions and managed explicitly. Additionally, the programming language as well includes the features for system programming; which allows accurate control over the illustration of data and access to system reliant-properties. Most importantly, this programming language offers a comprehensive and predefined programming setting of standard packages comprising amenities for, among others, string handling, input-output, random number generation and numeric elementary functions (Kempe, 1995). HISTORY In 1970s, the United States DoD (Department of Defense) was worried due to a number of different programming languages being utilized for developing and managing its embedded systems and other computer system projects as well as most of them were outdated or hardware reliant and none of them allowed for safe modular programming. Thus, in year 1975, The Department of Defense formed a technology working gr oup known as High Order Language Working Group (HOLWG), with the intention of minimizing this figure by discoing or finding or developing a single technology based programming language which could be used to manage all the embedded systems. As a result Ada emerged (Kempe Software Capital Enterprises, 2011; Feldman, 1999; eNotes.com, Inc., 2011). In addition, Ada programming language greatly took attention of the programming community all through its early days. Its backers as well as others forecasted that it would become a leading language for wide-ranging principle programming as well as not immediately defense-related tasks. In this scenario, Ichbiah widely stated that within 10 years, just two programming languages would stay Ada and Lisp. In

Activity Plan and Initial Recommendations for Tourism Company Essay

Activity Plan and Initial Recommendations for Tourism Company - Essay Example The researcher will be looking into past results and report with the help of secondary data collections methods which will be gathered from books, journal, internet and previous report with respect to tourism. Since the idea is to increase the rate travelling in our target consumers, we will be focusing on questionnaire which will focus on questions like frequency of travel, favourite destinations, etc. with these kinds of data we will be able to understand the trend of our consumers, their preferable destinations so that design and modify our packages accordingly. Before the researcher starts the activity planning and showcases the company, he needs to build the audience in to present it to them. So audience building is an essential part of the tourism industry. So the first focus will be building a new and existing group of audience. Audience development is about putting them in the center of the stage and trying to comprehend what individuals need; exhibiting our facility, gatheri ng or activity in a manner which is receptive, and welcoming; and empowering interest and engagement. As of late, there has been an expanding accentuation on audience improvement, especially from Government, open segment offices and stipend giving forms, for example, the Lottery funders. The inclination is that creating a more extensive cross-area of help is critical to building future backing for the legacy and that openly subsidized organizations have an obligation to captivate with all segments of the neighborhood.

Strategies of Pressure Groups

Strategies of Pressure Groups Pressure Groups Robert Hassam Britain is often referred to as a homogenous society as the public tend to share similar political views. However, more recently, there has been a decline in membership in political parties and an increase in the membership of pressure groups. In this essay I aim to define pressure groups, analyse their role and importance to British democracy. According to Duncan Watts, apressure groupscan be described as an organised group which seeks to influence government policy, protect or advance a particular cause or interest. They can also be described as ‘interest groups’, ‘lobby groups’ or ‘protest groups’. However some people avoid using the term ‘pressure group’ as it may inadvertently be interpreted as meaning the groups use actual pressure to achieve their aims, which does not necessarily happen. Pressure groups are distinct from political parties in that they do not seek political power, instead they aim to influence those already in power. The term pressure group is relatively recent, however voluntary organisations have been attempting to influence policy ever since the late 18th Century. A typical example of this, is The Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade. Which was founded in 1787 under William Wilberforce, and successfully achieved its objective to abolish slavery in 1807. A pressure group may be a huge organisation such as the British Medical Association (BMA), which stand represents doctors both individually and collectively on a wide variety of employment issues, or it may be a single-issue locally based organisation like CLARA (Central Area Leamington Residents Association), which represents less than 300 households campaigning to preserve and improve the town of Leamington Spa. Pressure groups are not only distinguished by size, cause, and aim but also by the levels of extremism, such as the Animal Liberation Front, which has frequently indulged in illegal activities to further its aims and objectives. Pressure groups may also have strong links to political parties such as the Institute for Public Policy Research (IPPR), which have links to the Labour government and have regular contact with cabinet ministers. (Jones Norton, 2010) Pressure groups are divided into the following sub-groups: Causal (or promotional) groups, Sectional (or Protection) groups and also how close they are to the government known as either Insider or Outsider groups. Causal groups are involved with a particular issue or issues and serve this cause by promoting it. These groups vary in size and aims, which can be permanent ‘such as friends of the earth’ who continually campaign for their particular cause or they can be temporary such as CND, the ‘campaign for nuclear disarmament’ who would disperse if their cause was attained or irreversibly lost. Sectional groups represent and further the interests of a particular part of society and as a result the members of these groups are more directly concerned with the outcome of the campaign at hand as they usually stand to gain something (professionally, economically). Therefore membership is usually limited to the sole members of that particular group of the populatio n and aim to involve all those that are eligible to join. Insider groups have strong links with decision makers and are regularly consulted. They are the groups that the government local and national considers to be legitimate and are, therefore, given access to decision makers. This category includes the National Farmers Union (NFU) and the police force, as they are involved in the consultation process as a matter of course when government proposals relevant to their activities are discussed. An outsider group is one that operates outside the government, they have no special links with them but they still seek to influence decision makers by (usually) mobilizing public opinion, an example would be Fathers 4 justice. Theyre generally not involved in the Law Making process and so dont have a chance to influence legislation. This may be due to previous protests or demonstrations which have made their relationship with the government hostile. Generally, Insider groups would be more s uccessful that outsider groups because of the influences that they do hold and the power they have to change the decisions made by the government. (Jones Norton, 2010) (http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/higher/modern/uk_gov_politics/central_gov/revision/4/) Pressure groups act as intermediaries between the government and the public. This role has become increasingly important as the scope and complexity of politics have increased and as it has become more difficult for political parties alone to perform all the representative functions. This means that they act as a spokesman or negotiators on behalf of clearly defined sectional interests, for example the ‘National Farmers Union’ which acts on behalf of farmers or the ‘British Medical Association’ which acts on behalf of medical professionals or doctors. Additionally pressure groups help governments to create and actualize their approaches by entering into detailed consultations on recommendations for administrative action or legislation and in this way by conveying a measure of public consent to the output of policy and decision making processes. For example, accommodation has had an extensive impact on housing legislation over the years, the Child Poverty Act ion Group has consistently pressed for changes to help the poor and particularly families with children. Pressure groups empower new concerns and issues to achieve the political agenda, thereby facilitating social advance and avoiding social stagnation, for instance the women’s and environmentalist movements. Pressure groups build social cohesion and political stability by providing almost a safety net for people and collective demands. (Forman and Baldwin, 2007) For many years, pressure groups in Europe worked at or below the level of the state. On the other hand, they have been dynamic in the EU since its formation, playing a significant role in its political improvement and policy making. The movement of political power towards the EU has implied that more power is progressively being transferred to Brussels. Hence pressure groups are increasingly turning to Brussels to campaign on issues as issues have a tendency to work on a worldwide level such as global warming. Pressure groups can now impact choices made on a worldwide level. The rapid rise of multinational originations also implies these companies have influence on a global level. Hence people need to campaign through pressure groups to impact them on key issues like child labour and free trade. (Watts, 2008) Quite a bit of what the public thinks about politics originates from the activities of pressure groups. They empower political instruction and raise political awareness. They commit significate resources to carrying out research, maintaining websites, remarking on government approaches and using high profile and expert individuals to get over their perspectives. An example would be Bob Geldof and the Live Eight concerts held in 2005 in ten cities, which was designed to put pressure on the G8 leaders to tackle global poverty. Pressure groups likewise provide a means for cooperation in local politics between elections. For instance, in 1994 the A452 Coordination Group campaigned to block plans by Warwickshire County Council to make the A452 a dual carriageway. After the groups exceptional campaigning, the board dropped the arrangements. . (Forman and Baldwin, 2007) (http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/what_are_pressure_groups.htm) The strategies and methods utilized by pressure groups can influence its success such as advertising. Pressure groups endeavor to impact public opinion through the media and mass communication including strategies of advertising and public relations. Groups that use advertising campaigns such as NSPCC and GOSH (Television advertisement campaigns) appeal to a wide audience which often make the group a household name. Another technique utilized by pressure groups is ‘lobbying’. Lobbying is the art of cultivating and influencing the opinions of policy-makers, such as MPs and Lords. Methods of lobbying vary and can range from sending letters, making presentations, providing briefing material to Members and organised rallies. Another method used by pressure groups is participating in publicity stunts. In 2008, Greenpeace battled against the 3rd runway at Heathrow Airport by breaking into the air terminal and protesting on top of one of the planes, this generated a lot of medi a coverage and attention from both the general population and the government. The use of public demonstrations can also aid the success of a pressure group, which can be seen from the 2010 NUS (National Union of Students) demonstration against the rise in university fees in London, this was exceptionally advertised and the group drew a considerable amount of attention, nonetheless it didnt impact the government and the rise in fees still occurred. Pressure groups also raise petitions which can lead to success, for example the National Trusts petition against the government selling forestry lands which was a success as Cameron dropped the proposals not long after the petition was presented. Pressure groups that use strategies and methods widely are more inclined to be effective rather than groups that sit back and are not involved in any public demonstrations or petitions such a Tentelini, a group that isnt known to use any methods to gain attention or to influence the government. (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/7338875.stm) (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-20412792) A pressure groups can use a variety of different methods to influence law. Firstly, it can merely educate legislators of its member’s inclinations. Second it may well give money or time to help with an election campaign. Third, its members may threaten, as a group, to vote as a block. By doing this they guarantee to help a cooperative legislator, and threaten to harm a non-cooperative legislator. Fourth, a pressure group may speed up legislation by writing bills and helping legislators make progressive agreements. Finally, a pressure group my attempt to influence members of the executive, who have some law making input and who can partly decide the strength and effectiveness of law enforcement. (Coxall and Robins, 1998) For some, pressure groups are a fundamental part of democracy. To others, pressure groups undermine the whole principle of democracy. Democracy is a system of government where decisions are arrived at by majoritarian principles with representatives elected at periodic elections where political equality and political opportunity permit the voter a compelling decision between competing candidates in a secret ballot. Arguments are present on both sides of the debate on whether pressure groups are beneficial for the government, and democracy. These arguments are typically focused upon Elitist and Pluralist belief systems, which differentiate one another in terms of thoughts. Elitists believe that the utilization of pressure groups threaten democracy, with the opinion of parties becoming too extreme in their views of which they become involved in criminalised activities, exert forced influence onto the general public, and the concept of innocent lives being harmed in the process of the pr essure groups protests. Pluralists however, consider pressure groups to promote democracy; with the use of individuals participating more in politics, and the focus of particular issues raised by the group to the government. Pluralists believe that pressure groups overcome the democratic deficit that builds up thereby enhancing the quality of democracy by increasing participation and access to the political system. Pressure groups complement and supplement electoral democracy in two main ways: by providing a vital form of citizen influence of the government between elections and enabling society’s variety of opinions is known. Pressure groups are the objective way to influence decisions in a free society. Freely operating pressure groups are crucial to the effective functioning of liberal democracy in three main ways: they serve as a voice between government and society, they disperse political power and provide an important counterweight and balance to political power which is particularly important with the two main political parties: the Conservative Party and the Labour party. Pressure groups improve the responsibilities of decision makers to electorates if enough impact is made. (Joyce, 2010) Although its undeniable that pressure groups play a vital role in British politics particularly in today’s less differential society, perhaps its not the suggested one of the pluralist model. For example, pressure groups do enhance interest however in an unequal way, benefiting the powerful and organised and disadvantaging the weak and disorderly. The groups themselves may not be representative of their members as many members views are overlooked if they dont comply with the ideologies of the leaders or decision makers of that group. The methods of influence some groups use build social discontent and political instability by intensifying social frustration and injustice felt by certain sections of the population. This can disregard the benefit of the whole of the community and this kind of civil disobedience cant be justified in todays democratic system. In conclusion, pressure groups can both detract from and strengthen democracy to a certain extent. Pressure groups are an essential dimension of any democracy, yet they can endanger it if sectional groups undermine the public interest or if the methods they use are corrupt or intimidating. Lastly in my humble opinion, I think pressure groups are a fundamental part of any democratic society, serving as a voice between the elite and the common citizens. However I question, if pressure groups where not influential in British politics, would the voices of common citizens be heard or even considered by the elite minority such as politicians? Bibliography Bitesize, B.,n.d. Pressure Groups. (Online) Available at:Â  (http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/what_are_pressure_groups.htm)Â  (Accessed on 07th of April 2015) Bitesize, B,.n.d. Government Politics. (Online) Available at:Â  (http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/higher/modern/uk_gov_politics/central_gov/revision/4/)Â  (Accessed on 07th of April 2015) Bitesize, B,.n.d. UK Politics. (Online) Available at:Â  (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/7338875.stm)Â  (Accessed on Bitesize, B,.n.d. Education. (Online) Available at:Â  (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-20412792)Â  (Accessed on Jones, B., M., Nortan, P. (2010) Politics UK, 7th Edition. London: Pearson Education Ltd. Watts, D. (2008) The European Union. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Forman, F.N., Baldwin, D.J. (2007) Mastering British Politics, 5th Edition. Basingstoke: MacMillan Press Ltd. Coxall, B., Lyton, R. (1998) Contemporary British Politics, 3rd Edition. Basingstoke: Palgrave Joyce, P. (2010) Understanding Politics, 3rd Edition. London: Hodder Education.